During the final day of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal (PPT), judges reflected on the more than century-long history of Indigenous Peoples bringing their concerns, experiences, and assertions of inherent rights to the international community.
PPT Judge Seanna Howard highlighted the significance of this history, connecting the Tribunal’s proceedings in 2026 to the historic efforts of Haudenosaunee Chief Deskaheh Levi General (Cayuga Chief), who travelled to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1923 as part of a diplomatic effort to bring the Haudenosaunee Confederacy’s assertions of sovereignty before the League of Nations.
“The Indigenous peoples in Canada have been appealing since the 20’s to the international communities, when Haudenosaunee Chief Deskaheh travelled to Geneva, Switzerland, and asked for an audience with the League of Nations, a predecessor to the United Nations, and he was denied the opportunity to address. So here we are in 2026, and Indigenous peoples are still asking the international community to address the situation.”
Judges of the 57th Session of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal with Mohawk Elder Kevin Deer, Survivors’ Secretariat Lead Laura Arndt, Nak’uset of the Native Women’s Shelter of Montreal, and prosecutors Christa Big Canoe and Sarah Glickman of Aboriginal Legal Services.
More than 100 years later, the words spoken during the PPT reflected a continuing history of Indigenous Peoples seeking justice, recognition, and accountability beyond ‘Canada’s’ borders.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was established in 1920 following the First World War as the first major international organization created to promote cooperation between nations and prevent future conflicts.
Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the League represented a new era of international diplomacy. Although the League of Nations was dissolved in 1946, the creation of the United Nations in 1945 marked a continuation of efforts to develop international systems.
Deskaheh Levi General’s Mission to Geneva
Through The Red Man’s Appeal for Justice (Aug. 1923), a formal petition, submitted to the League of Nations by Deskaheh, asserted that the “Six Nations of the Iroquois” which was therein after refered to as “The Six Nations” were organized, self-governing peoples whose relationship with the Crown had historically been based on nation-to-nation agreements, and diplomatic relationships.
Levi General (Deskaheh), Cayuga Chief and Speaker of the Six Nations Council, in Geneva, Switzerland, 1923. Photo Cred: Culturalsurvival.org
The appeal identifies the constituent members of the State of the Six Nations of the Iroquois—the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora—and describes them as distinct, self-governing peoples united through what the document calls the “League of the Iroquois.”
The appeal outlines their longstanding systems of governance, their historical territories and Grand River land base, and their political and treaty relationships with European powers and, later, Dominion of Canada.
The appeal also documents commitments made by the British Crown in return for the Six Nations’ alliance and military support, as well as grievances concerning land, trust funds, governance, and Canada’s alleged violations of those commitments and of Six Nations’ right to self-government.
Deskaheh explained that the Six Nations are governed by the Kaianere’kó (Great Law of Peace), The Great Law of Peace | World Epics a system of governance established more than 1,000 years ago, long before the arrival of Europeans in North America. He asserted that the “League of the Iroquois” existed as a self-governing nation with its own laws, political institutions, and diplomatic traditions.
Drawing on longstanding nation-to-nation relationships, Deskaheh referenced agreements such as the Covenant Chain and the Haldimand Proclamation of 1784, arguing that these affirmed the continued independence and political authority of the Six Nations.
Deskaheh’s appeal challenged Canada’s assertion that Indigenous Peoples existed solely under federal authority. Instead, he presented the Six Nations as a nation with its own political institutions and inherent right to govern itself.
Defending Six Nations Governance
Deskaheh’s journey occurred during a period of increasing Canadian interference in the government and political autonomy of the Six Nations.
In The Redman’s Appeal for Justice, Deskaheh argued that Canada was attempting to extend Dominion authority over the Six Nations through the Indian Act and other Canadian laws. The appeal maintained that these measures were being imposed without the consent of the Six Nations Council and were intended to undermine the existing Government of the Six Nations. It specifically objected to efforts to establish a new form of government “devised by the Dominion Parliament” and resting on Canadian authority.
Deskaheh argued that these actions violated the Six Nations’ nationality, independence, treaties with the British Crown, and their right to what the appeal described as “independence in home-rule.” After efforts to secure British intervention and negotiate arbitration with Canada failed, the Six Nations brought their case to the League of Nations.
Image of the Indian Act of 1906 Photo Cred: CBC.CA
The Appeal to the League of Nations
Deskaheh remained in Geneva into 1924, continuing his diplomatic efforts and engaging with representatives from several countries, including the Netherlands and Ireland, in an attempt to gain support for the Haudenosaunee Confederacy’s appeal. Despite these efforts, the League of Nations ultimately did not grant Deskaheh an audience.
The refusal reflected the political structures of the international system at the time, which did not recognize Indigenous nations as equal participants in international diplomacy and often deferred to the authority of colonial states.
Canada was a member of the League of Nations and argued that the Six Nations were not an independent nation but instead existed under Canadian jurisdiction as “wards of the state” under the Indian Act.
Many member states, including Britain, France, and Belgium, were themselves colonial powers. Recognizing the sovereignty claims of Indigenous nations could have challenged the colonial relationships and political structures maintained by these states. The refusal to hear Deskaheh’s appeal was therefore not only a procedural decision but also reflected the political realities of an international system that did not recognize Indigenous nations as equal participants.
Ultimately, the League relied on the position that it could not consider petitions from peoples or nations that were not recognized as states by membered governments. Since Canada refused to recognize Haudenosaunee sovereignty, the League declined to intervene.
Colonial Policies and the Disruption of Indigenous Nationhood
Deskaheh left Geneva in 1924, and shortly afterward, the RCMP forcibly entered the Six Nations Council House and enforced the establishment of an elected band council under the authority of the Indian Act, replacing the traditional Confederacy Council structure.
The intervention occurred during a period of escalating conflict between the Canadian government and Haudenosaunee leadership over questions of governance, sovereignty, and political authority.
During the same period that Deskaheh was advocating internationally for the recognition of Haudenosaunee sovereignty, Indian Residential Schools (IRS) were operating across Canada, including the Mohawk Institute in what is now called Brantford, Ontario.
Exterior of the Mohawk Institute Photo Cred: The Canadian Encyclopedia
The Mohawk Institute opened in 1831 and became one of the earliest and longest-operating residential schools in Canada. By 1920, amendments to the Indian Act made attendance at these institutions’ compulsory for many Indigenous children. The residential school system in Canada continued until 1996, when the last federally operated residential school closed.
The impacts of colonial policies extended beyond the experiences of individual Indigenous children and families; they affected the foundations of Indigenous nations themselves. Through the suppression of languages, disruption of cultural teachings, interference with traditional governance systems, and the imposition of external systems of authority, colonial policies have created lasting impacts on Indigenous nations across ‘Canada’ to this day.
From Geneva to the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal
More than a century after Deskaheh travelled to Geneva, the 57th session of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal represents another chapter in this ongoing pursuit of truth, justice, and recognition.
Like Deskaheh’s appeal in 1923, the Tribunal reflects Indigenous Peoples’ continued efforts to to be heard and to seek accountability for harms that have persisted across generations.
The connection between Deskaheh’s mission and the PPT is not only historical — it reflects a continuing pursuit of recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ inherent rights, sovereignty, and self-determination.
On May 29, 2026, the Tribunal issued a preliminary declaration finding that Canada had committed genocide against Indigenous Peoples and identified onoing concerns related to genocide and crimes against humanity under international law.
The distinguished judges of the 57th Session of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal announcing their Interim Statement in Montreal, May 2026.
The PPT’s preliminary statement recognized that the harms examined were not limited to historical events, but involved, and continues to be impacted by colonial systems and state actions.
To read the full interim statement given by the judges of the PPT, click here.
Continuing Deskaheh’s Legacy
For the Survivors’ Secretariat, hearing Deskaheh’s legacy recognized during the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal was deeply meaningful. The Secretariat is Survivor-led organization and operates on Six Nations of the Grand River territory, where Survivors of the Indian Residential School system and their descendants continue the work of uncovering, documenting, and sharing the history and ongoing impacts of the Mohawk Institute.
More than a century after Deskaheh travelled to Geneva to seek recognition of Haudenosaunee sovereignty and justice for his people, Survivors and descendants of Six Nations continue to carry forward this legacy.
Mohawk Institute Survivors and wellness supports sharing a song at the 57th Session of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal in Montreal, May 2026.
As PPT Judge Katsi’tsakwas Ellen Gabriel (Kanien’kehá:ka), stated during the Tribunal’s preliminary statement:
Tiótkon eniethiianonhtónnionhwe ne á:se tenhatikonhsontón:tie rotirihwá:ke, aiá:wens tsi skenen’kó:wa akénhake ne ronónha raotirihwá:ke, tánon konnoronhkhwá:tshera enhatihá:wike. Thó nitewaia’tò:ten ne Haudenosaunee, tho ní:tsi tewanonhtón:nion, tánon akwé:kon né: ionkwaterihwaién:ni.
Ionkwaterihwaién:ni ne aké:kon aionkwaió’ten ne á:se tenhatikonhsontóntie raotirihwá:ke, ne skén:nen akénha tsi ionhontsá:te. Tho ká:ti naiohtónhake ne onkwa’nikòn:ra.
Translation:
In Haudenosaunee ways, we believe that the faces yet to come are looking up at us to see if we are clearing the path for them to ensure that they will arrive in a place of love, compassion, understanding and safety, to be loved and nurtured for who they are as Onkwehon’we Peoples.
It is our role to protect their arrival from the spirit plane and ensure that the work we do supports their survival; that the decisions we make today will benefit the faces not yet born